• Social Inequality (Estates System)
  France was divided into three rigid estates: the 1st (clergy, ~1% of population, no taxes), 2nd (nobility, ~2%, no taxes), and 3rd (commoners—peasants, urban workers, bourgeoisie, ~97%). The 3rd Estate bore all tax burdens, had no political power, and resented the privileged classes’ wealth and exemption from obligations.

• Economic Crisis
  France faced massive debt from wars (e.g., supporting the American Revolution) and royal extravagance (e.g., Versailles). Poor harvests drove up bread prices (a staple), pushing many into starvation. The government tried to raise taxes on the already struggling 3rd Estate, worsening unrest.

• Enlightenment Ideas
  Thinkers like Rousseau (social contract), Voltaire (criticism of absolute monarchy/clergy), and Montesquieu (separation of powers) spread ideals of liberty, equality, and popular sovereignty. These ideas inspired the 3rd Estate to demand an end to autocracy and unfair privilege.

• Weak Leadership
  King Louis XVI was indecisive and failed to implement meaningful reforms. His dismissal of reformist ministers and inability to address the crisis eroded public trust. Marie Antoinette’s lavish spending and perceived detachment from the people further damaged the monarchy’s reputation.

• Trigger: Estates-General (1789)
  Louis XVI called the Estates-General to approve new taxes. The 3rd Estate, frustrated by unequal voting (each estate had one vote, so 1st+2nd outvoted 3rd), declared itself the National Assembly and swore the Tennis Court Oath to draft a constitution—marking the revolution’s start.

These factors combined to ignite widespread rebellion against the old regime.

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